ChronoFive
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Setting the scene
By 1517, the Catholic Church was selling indulgences—certificates reducing time in purgatory—to fund St. Peter's Basilica reconstruction. Dominican friar Johann Tetzel famously marketed them in Germany with the jingle 'As soon as the coin in the coffer rings, the soul from purgatory springs.' Martin Luther, a 33-year-old Augustinian monk and Wittenberg University theology professor, had experienced a spiritual crisis and developed the doctrine of justification by faith alone, contradicting the Church's works-based salvation.
What happened
On October 31, 1517, Luther wrote to Archbishop Albrecht of Mainz protesting indulgences and, according to tradition, nailed his 95 Theses to the door of All Saints' Church in Wittenberg—though this may be legend, as church doors served as bulletin boards. Written in Latin, the Theses argued that repentance was lifelong, that the pope had no power over purgatory, and that Christians should be taught to give to the poor rather than buy indulgences. They were intended for academic debate.
Why it still matters
Within weeks, printers translated the Theses into German and spread them across Europe via Gutenberg's press, making Luther famous. Pope Leo X excommunicated him in 1521, but Luther's ideas sparked the Protestant Reformation, splitting Western Christianity permanently. His translation of the Bible into German standardized the language and democratized scripture access. The Reformation led to 130 years of religious wars, the Counter-Reformation, and the principle that individual conscience could challenge institutional authority—a foundation for modern concepts of freedom of thought.
Background
The Reformation reshaped religion and politics across Europe. Even centuries later, this episode remains a reference point for how empires rise, fracture, and transform.