Treaty of Nanjing

Setting the scene

The Treaty of Nanjing, signed August 29, 1842, ended the First Opium War between Britain and Qing China. After British forces captured Shanghai and threatened Nanjing, the Qing court sued for peace. The treaty was negotiated aboard HMS Cornwallis in the Yangtze River, with British plenipotentiary Sir Henry Pottinger and Qing officials Qiying, Yilibu, and Niu Jian. It was the first of the 'unequal treaties' that would dominate China's foreign relations for a century, imposed by military force without reciprocal obligations.

What happened

The treaty's terms were harsh: China paid $21 million in reparations ($6 million for destroyed opium, $12 million for war costs, $3 million for debts); ceded Hong Kong Island to Britain in perpetuity; opened five ports—Canton, Amoy, Foochow, Ningbo, and Shanghai—to British trade and residence; granted Britain most-favored-nation status; set fixed tariffs; and granted extraterritoriality, meaning British citizens in China were subject to British, not Chinese, law. A supplementary treaty in 1843 added further concessions.

Why it still matters

The Treaty of Nanjing shattered the Qing tribute system that had governed East Asian international relations for centuries, forcing China into the Western treaty system as an inferior power. It began the era of foreign concessions and extraterritoriality that undermined Chinese sovereignty. The treaty also opened China to Christian missionaries and Western influence, contributing to the Taiping Rebellion (1850-1864) and eventual Qing collapse. For Britain, it secured a strategic base at Hong Kong and access to China's market. The treaty remains a symbol in China of national humiliation and Western imperialism, its legacy influencing Chinese foreign policy to this day.

Background

It began the treaty port era in East Asia.