U.S. Constitution Ratified

Setting the scene

The Articles of Confederation, ratified in 1781, created a weak central government that couldn't tax, regulate commerce, or pay Revolutionary War debts. States printed their own money, imposed tariffs on each other, and Shays' Rebellion in 1786 showed the government couldn't maintain order. George Washington, James Madison, and Alexander Hamilton convinced states to send delegates to Philadelphia in 1787 to revise the Articles. Fifty-five delegates met in secret from May to September, with Washington presiding and Madison taking detailed notes.

What happened

The Constitutional Convention created an entirely new framework: a federal system with separation of powers among executive, legislative, and judicial branches, checks and balances, and a bicameral Congress. The Great Compromise created the Senate (equal state representation) and House (population-based). The Three-Fifths Compromise counted enslaved people as three-fifths for representation. The Constitution was signed September 17, 1787, then sent to states for ratification. Federalists (Hamilton, Madison, Jay) wrote the Federalist Papers to persuade skeptics.

Why it still matters

The Constitution was ratified on June 21, 1788, when New Hampshire became the ninth state to approve, meeting the threshold. It took effect March 4, 1789, with Washington as first president. The Constitution created the world's oldest written national charter still in use, establishing a republic that has lasted 235 years. Its Bill of Rights, added in 1791, became a model for liberal democracy worldwide. The document's vague phrases and amendment process allowed it to adapt to industrialization, civil war, and digital age, though its compromises on slavery led to the Civil War. It remains the foundation of American law and a template for constitutions globally.

Background

George Washington became first president the following year.