Death of Muhammad

Setting the scene

Muhammad ibn Abdullah, born in Mecca around 570, had by 632 unified Arabia under Islam. After the Hijra to Medina in 622, he built a community that conquered Mecca in 630 and received delegations from tribes across the peninsula. In March 632, he performed his farewell pilgrimage, delivering a sermon at Mount Arafat emphasizing equality and justice. He fell ill in late May with fever and headaches, likely worsened by poisoning years earlier at Khaybar.

What happened

He died on June 8, 632, in the home of his wife Aisha in Medina, aged about 62, with his head in her lap. He left no clear succession plan and no surviving sons—his daughters Fatima, Zainab, Ruqayya, and Umm Kulthum were his only children to reach adulthood. His death created an immediate crisis: who would lead the ummah? While his family prepared his body, companions met at Saqifah to choose a successor, excluding his cousin and son-in-law Ali.

Why it still matters

Abu Bakr, Muhammad's close friend and father-in-law, was elected first caliph, establishing Sunni precedent for elective leadership. Ali's supporters, who believed Muhammad had designated him at Ghadir Khumm, formed the basis of Shi'a Islam. The succession dispute split the community permanently. Abu Bakr's immediate challenge was the Ridda Wars, suppressing tribes that tried to leave Islam after Muhammad's death. Within a decade, his successors would conquer Persia and Byzantine territories, transforming Muhammad's religious movement into a world empire.【7660587449378498412†L5-L7】

Background

The caliphate would spread Arab rule across huge regions. Even centuries later, this episode remains a reference point for how empires rise, fracture, and transform.