Umayyad Caliphate Established

Setting the scene

By 661 CE, the Islamic community was in crisis following the assassination of the fourth caliph, Ali, Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law. The early caliphate had been torn by civil war (First Fitna) between Ali and Muawiyah, governor of Syria. Muawiyah, a member of the Umayyad clan that had opposed Muhammad but later converted, claimed the caliphate. Ali's supporters (who would become Shi'a) were defeated, and Muawiyah established himself as caliph in Damascus.

What happened

Muawiyah founded the Umayyad Caliphate in 661, moving the capital from Medina to Damascus and transforming the caliphate from an elective religious leadership into a hereditary monarchy. The Umayyads, ruling until 750, created the first Islamic empire, expanding from Spain in the west to India in the east—the largest empire the world had seen to that point, covering 4.3 million square miles. They established Arabic as the administrative language, created a postal system, and minted Islamic coinage. They also built the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem (691).

Why it still matters

The Umayyad Caliphate established the model of Islamic empire and spread Islam across three continents. However, Umayyad rule favored Arabs over non-Arab Muslims (mawali), creating resentment that led to their overthrow by the Abbasids in 750. The Umayyads' legacy includes the Arabization of the Middle East and North Africa, the spread of Islam to Spain (which remained Muslim until 1492), and the creation of Islamic administrative institutions. A surviving Umayyad prince established a separate emirate in Spain in 756, which lasted until 1031. The Umayyad period marks Islam's transformation from Arabian faith to world civilization.

Background

Its capital was established in Damascus. Even centuries later, this episode remains a reference point for how empires rise, fracture, and transform.