The Great Fire of London

Setting the scene

By 1666, London was a crowded medieval city of 80,000 people packed into timber-framed houses with thatched roofs, narrow alleys, and open sewers. After a hot, dry summer and a previous plague year that killed 100,000, the city was tinder-dry. Firefighting relied on bucket brigades and primitive hand pumps, with no organized fire service. King Charles II had recently restored the monarchy, and London's infrastructure remained essentially medieval.

What happened

The fire began shortly after midnight on Sunday, September 2, 1666, in Thomas Farriner's bakery on Pudding Lane. Fanned by strong easterly winds, it raged for four days, destroying 13,200 houses, 87 parish churches, and the medieval St. Paul's Cathedral. Samuel Pepys famously buried his cheese and wine to save them. Only six verified deaths were recorded, though the true toll was likely higher among the poor. Charles II and his brother James, Duke of York, personally directed firebreaks by pulling down houses.

Why it still matters

The Great Fire forced the first modern urban planning in London, mandating brick and stone construction, wider streets, and the creation of the first insurance fire brigades. Sir Christopher Wren's rebuilding gave London its iconic baroque skyline, including the new St. Paul's. The disaster ended the second plague pandemic in London by destroying rat habitats, and established building codes that influenced cities worldwide. The Monument, erected in 1677, still marks the fire's origin point.

Background

The Great Fire of London was a major conflagration that occurred in central London from Sunday 2 September to Wednesday 5 September 1666, gutting the medieval City of London inside the old Roman city wall, while also extending past the wall to the west. The death toll is generally thought to have been relatively small, although some historians have challenged this belief. Much of the medieval city core was rebuilt afterward. Even centuries later, this episode remains a reference point for how empires rise, fracture, and transform.